Chemokines and chemotaxis of leukocytes in infectious meningitis

doi:10.1016/S0165-5728(97)00267-1

Journal of Neuroimmunology

Volume 85, Issue 1, 1 May 1998, Pages 33-43

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-5728(97)00267-1 Get rights and content

Abstract

Chemokines constitute a constantly growing family of small inflammatory cytokines. They have been implied in many different diseases of the CNS including trauma, stroke and inflammation, e.g., multiple sclerosis. In this review we focus on the role of chemokines in infectious meningitis of bacterial or viral origin. In experimental bacterial meningitis induced by Listeria monocytogeneses both CXC and CC chemokines namely MIP-1α, MIP-1β and MIP-2 are produced intrathecally by meningeal macrophages and leukocytes which infiltrate into the CNS. In patients with bacterial meningitis, IL-8, GROα, MCP-1, MIP-1α and MIP-1β are detectable in the CSF. These chemokines contribute to CSF mediated chemotaxis on neutrophils and PBMC in vitro. In viral meningitis IL-8, IP-10 and MCP-1 are identified in the CSF to be responsible for chemotactic activity on neutrophils, PBMC and activated T cells. Taken collectively these data indicate that the recruitment of leukocytes in infectious meningitis involves the intrathecal production of chemokines.

Introduction

The major pathogens in acute community acquired bacterial meningitis include Streptococcus pneumoniae, Hemophilus influenzae and Neisseria meningitidis. The diagnosis is based on examination of CSF. The CSF white cell count is usually in the range of 1000–5000 μl⁻¹ with a neutrophil predominance (Tunkel and Scheld, 1995). In contrast, monocytes and activated T cells account for CSF pleocytosis in viral meningitis, which is caused mainly by enteroviruses or paramyxoviruses (Schlitt et al., 1991). In viral meningitis, the number of cells is not more than several hundreds per μl neutrophils being found at the onset of the disease only. The disease caused by bacteria remains a serious clinical problem, mortality rates being still 20–30%. Leukocytes initiate and propagate brain injury by releasing toxic products. These include proteases, glutamate, reactive oxygen intermediates, NO, the latter molecules have been shown to be key mediators of the pathological changes in bacterial meningitis (for review see Pfister and Scheld, 1997). Brain injury results mainly from cerebrovascular involvement leading to cerebral ischemia, brain edema, hydrocephalus and increased intracranial pressure (Pfister et al., 1992). In contrast, viral meningitis is a relative benign disease with rare fatal outcome.

Section snippets

The concept of chemokines and matrix metalloproteinases to guide the recruitment of leukocytes into the CSF compartment

Bacterial meningitis can be initiated by nasopharyngeal colonization and invasion of bacteria, followed by CNS invasion. Part of the host response in infectious meningitis is the recruitment of leukocytes through the blood vessels into the meninges, the choroid plexus and the CSF compartment. Based on studies in other tissues, this process is thought to comprise four steps: rolling of leukocytes along the vessel walls, activation of integrins on the surface of the leukocytes, activation

Chemokines and their involvement in inflammation of the CNS

Chemokines constitute a large family of small inflammatory cytokines involved in the recruitment and activation of a wide variety of cell types (Oppenheim et al., 1991; Miller and Krangel, 1992; Oppenheim, 1993; Baggiolini et al., 1994, Baggiolini et al., 1997), (Table 1Table 2). The nomenclature of chemokines is based on the position of conserved cysteines within the amino acid sequence. The CXC subfamily consists of chemokines bearing four conserved cysteines, the two first being separate by

Production of MIP-1 and MIP-2 in meningeal infiltrates and the choroid plexus in experimental Listeria meningitis

A review of 493 episodes of bacterial meningitis in patients with 16 yr or older at a Boston hospital between 1962 and 1988 revealed Listeria monocytogeneses (LM) to be the causative agent in 8% of the cases. In patients aged 60 yr or more the corresponding figure was 15% (Calder, 1997). In the CSF, Listeria are eliminated intracellularly by IFNγ and TNFα activated monocytes (Frei et al., 1993). To investigate the site of production of chemokines in bacterial meningitis and their involvement in

In humans the neutrophilic response in the CSF correlates with expression of IL-8 in viral but not in bacterial meningitis

We and other groups have analyzed the chemokine levels of the two CXC chemokines IL-8 and GROα in the CSF of patients with infectious meningitis. These two chemokines exert strong chemotactic activity on neutrophils. In agreement with other studies we could detect elevated IL-8 levels in the CSF of patients with meningitis compared to the CSF of patients with inflammatory diseases not involving the CNS (Fig. 1, Table 3), (Van Meir et al., 1992; Lopez Cortes et al., 1995; Ostergaard et al., 1996

The CSF chemotactic activity for PBMC is mainly due to MCP-1

Monocytes and activated T cells predominate the second phase of viral meningitis. In bacterial meningitis caused by N. meningitidis, S. pneumoniae and H. influenzae, mononuclear cells are not prominent but may increase with time of disease (Schlitt et al., 1991). As signs for activation of the T cells in viral meningitis the expression of surface DR antigens and of transcripts for IFNγ and perforin were used and found to be highly increased in T cells derived from CSF taken in the acute phase

Concentrated action of CSF derived MCP-1 and IP-10 on chemotaxis of activated T cells

The chemotactic signals acting on activated T cells comprise IP-10, MCP-1, RANTES, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, IL-15 and IL-16. Among the chemokines acting on activated T-cells not only MCP-1 but also IP-10 was detected in the CSF of patients with viral meningitis (Lahrtz et al., 1997). RANTES, MIP-1, IL-15, and IL-16 were not or only occasionally detectable. Furthermore, Mig, a CXC chemokine which binds to the same receptor as IP-10 (Loetscher et al., 1996a), was not found in the CSF (Table 3). The

On the cellular source of chemokines in the central nervous system

The cellular sources of the chemokines detected in CSF of patients with meningitis are not known. Macrophages are the classical producers of MCP-1, IP-10 and IL-8 (Yoshimura et al., 1989; Luster et al., 1985). In analogy to experimental meningitis in mice (see above) it might be that both macrophages in the meninges and monocytes which are present in small numbers in normal CSF and in the choroid plexus become activated to produce IP-10, MCP-1 and IL-8 in the early course of infection. Besides

Final remarks

A much broader range of different chemokines is expressed in bacterial meningitis vs. viral meningitis. Furthermore, also quantitatively chemokines are present in the CSF in higher concentrations in bacterial than in viral meningitis. This goes in parallel with more pronounced chemotactic activity of bacterial meningitis CSF compared to viral meningitis CSF. Likewise, other cytokines including TNFα (Nadal et al., 1989), IL-1 (Lopez Cortes et al., 1993), IL-6 (Chavanet et al., 1992) or G-CSF (

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Chemokines and chemotaxis of leukocytes in infectious meningitis

Abstract

Introduction

Section snippets

The concept of chemokines and matrix metalloproteinases to guide the recruitment of leukocytes into the CSF compartment

Chemokines and their involvement in inflammation of the CNS

Production of MIP-1 and MIP-2 in meningeal infiltrates and the choroid plexus in experimental Listeria meningitis

In humans the neutrophilic response in the CSF correlates with expression of IL-8 in viral but not in bacterial meningitis

The CSF chemotactic activity for PBMC is mainly due to MCP-1

Concentrated action of CSF derived MCP-1 and IP-10 on chemotaxis of activated T cells

On the cellular source of chemokines in the central nervous system

Final remarks

The CXC chemokines growth-regulated oncogene (GRO) alpha, GRObeta, GROgamma, neutrophil-activating peptide-2, and epithelial cell-derived neutrophil-activating peptide-78 are potent agonists for the type B, but not the type A, human interleukin-8 receptor

J. Biol. Chem.

Production of hemolymphopoietic cytokines (IL-6, IL-8, colony-stimulating factors) by normal human astrocytes in response to IL-1 beta and tumor necrosis factor-alpha

J. Immunol.

Identification of CCR6, the specific receptor for a novel lymphocyte directed CC chemokine larc

J. Biol. Chem.

Interleukin-8 and related chemotactic cytokines—CXC and CC chemokines

Adv. Immunol.

Human chemokines: an update

Annu. Rev. Immunol.

A new class of membrane bound chemokine with a CX(3)C motif

Nature

Overriding the brain's intrinsic resistance to leukocyte recruitment with intraparenchymal injections of recombinant chemokines

Neuroscience

Selective elevation of monocyte chemotactic protein-1 in the cerebrospinal fluid of AIDS patients with cytomegalovirus encephalitis

J. Infect. Dis.

Platelet-activating factor promotes shear rate-dependent leukocyte adhesion in postcapillary venules

J. Lipid Mediators

Lymphocyte homing and homeostasis

Science

Neutrophil and B cell expansion in mice that lack the murine IL-8 receptor homolog

Science

Listeria meningitis in adults

Lancet

Production of monocyte chemotactic protein-1 by rat brain macrophages

Eur. J. Neurosci.

Regulated production of the interferon-gamma-inducible protein-10 (IP-10) chemokine by human neutrophils

Eur. J. Immunol.

The lymphocyte chemoattractant factor

J. Lab. Clin. Med.

Molecular cloning and functional expression of two monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 receptors reveals alternative splicing of the carboxyl-terminal tails

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.

High concentrations of intrathecal interleukin-6 in human bacterial and nonbacterial meningitis

J. Infect. Dis.

Bacteria and viruses induce production of interferon in the cerebrospinal fluid of children with acute meningitis: a study of 57 cases and review

Rev. Infect. Dis.

Early identification of interleukin-16 (lymphocyte chemoattractant factor) and macrophage inflammatory protein 1 alpha (MIP1 alpha) in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of antigen-challenged asthmatics

Am. J. Respir. Cell. Mol. Biol.

C3a is a chemotaxin for human eosinophils but not for neutrophils: I. C3a stimulation of neutrophils is secondary to eosinophil activation

J. Exp. Med.

Cloning, expression, and characterization of the human eosinophil eotaxin receptor

J. Exp. Med.

To stick or not to stick: the new leukocyte homing paradigm

Curr. Opin. Cell. Biol.

Monocyte chemoattractant protein-3, but not monocyte chemoattractant protein-2, is a functional ligand of the human monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 receptor

J. Immunol.

HLA-DR antigen expression on T cells from cerebrospinal fluid in multiple sclerosis and aseptic meningo-encephalitis

Clin. Exp. Immunol.

Production of B cell stimulatory factor-2 and interferon gamma in the central nervous system during viral meningitis and encephalitis. Evaluation in a murine model infection and in patients

J. Exp. Med.

Listeria meningitis: identification of a cerebrospinal fluid inhibitor of macrophage listericidal function as interleukin 10

J. Exp. Med.

Controlled recruitment of monocytes and macrophages to specific organs through transgenic expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1

J. Immunol.

Transient elevation of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor levels in cerebrospinal fluid at the initial stage of aseptic meningitis in children

Pediatr. Res.

Structure and functional expression of the human macrophage inflammatory protein 1 alpha/RANTES receptor

J. Exp. Med.

Human monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-4 is a novel CC chemokine with activities on monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils induced in allergic and nonallergic inflammation that signals through the CC chemokine receptors (CCR)-2 and -3

J. Immunol.

Chemokine monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 is expressed by astrocytes after mechanical injury to the brain

J. Immunol.

Synchronous synthesis of alpha- and beta-chemokines by cells of diverse lineage in the central nervous system of mice with relapses of chronic experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis

Am. J. Pathol.

Interferon-gamma in cerebrospinal fluid from patients with viral and bacterial meningitis

Scand. J. Infect. Dis.

Chemokine expression in murine experimental allergic encephalomyelitis

J. Neuroimmunol.